Intertwine

Photo by Marino Linic

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

What’s on your mind as we come to the end of another year? I will share with you what I’m thinking about as we bring 2025 to a close. Celebrating life and what is good while acknowledging death and refuting the evil that incites it requires that we find meaning, foster connection, and plan for the future, even when the immediate future remains bleak.

Reflecting on 2025, I’m reminded again of how fragile life is and how much we take for granted, assuming it will remain untouched, permanent, and familiar. We have become more accustomed to certain things and, in the process, more tolerant, more resilient, and more accepting of the things that inevitably change the ways we think and live.

“Intertwine” is how I have come to define the intricate dance we have in the liminal space between good and evil. Not only the changes that impact our bodies (healthy aging vs. disease), but also the contradictory philosophical, social, and political beliefs, we are forced to rethink and hold simultaneously. Psychology refers to this as cognitive dissonance. For this essay, I will refer to this as Intertwine, defined in the Cambridge Dictionary as: to twist or be twisted together, or to be connected and difficult to separate.

Though not exclusive, I believe three public concerns have captured growing sentiment and the attention of advocates for social justice, with the debate over which legislative policies would best serve the country.

Health Care for All:

Despite numerous high-level political commitments to achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC) by 2030, more than half of the world’s population still lacks access to essential health services. One in four people face financial hardship when paying for health care out of their own pockets-often at the expense of basic needs such as food, education, or housing.  (Universal Health Coverage Day 2025, n.d.)
We must ask the question: Is health care considered a right or a commodity?

Expanded Expedited Removal:

is a procedure that allows U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) officials to rapidly deport noncitizens who are said to be undocumented or who have committed misrepresentation or fraud. Under expedited removal processes, certain noncitizens are deported in as little as a single day without an immigration court hearing or other appearance before an Immigration judge. More individuals are being apprehended across the U.S., requiring quick removal if they cannot prove two years of residency. Many reside legally in the US under Employment-based (EB), Family-based (FB), and Academic Study (F-1) visas, but are not afforded Due process. The only exception would be those who have entered the country illegally with the intent of seeking asylum. We must ask: What are the ethical and human rights implications of current immigration enforcement on immigrant communities’ mental health and integration?

Gun Control Policy:

The rate of firearm-related deaths in our nation is rising. While mass shooting deaths represent only about 1% of firearm-related deaths in the U.S., mass shootings in general cause outsized collective trauma on society and have a strong negative effect on the public’s perception of safety. The impacts of this violence are felt across entire communities, contributing to generations of trauma and collective grief. (General, 2024)

Although there is no correlation to mass shootings, gun homicides on average disproportionately impact communities of color. Gun violence is the number one killer of African Americans aged 15 to 34. Even though African Americans make up only 13% of the U.S. population, we represent nearly 50% of all gun homicide victims. Concerning U.S. gun policy, we must ask: How should the constitutional right to bear arms be interpreted and balanced against the government’s duty to ensure public safety? (NAACP, 2021)

Embedded in each of these questions are conflicting beliefs and polarizing views that are intertwined, dividing individuals and the country. However, an inability to arrive at a satisfactory resolution should not be a reason to abandon the fight for access, domicile, and safety. Each statement seeks to address specific considerations, and most will agree that they have some merit. Yet I can’t help but experience injustice when I see social policies or the lack thereof that are subversive, dehumanizing, and their result is evil. Why is this?

The late Nobel-winning poet and essayist Joseph Brodsky (1940-1996), in a 1984 commencement address, best summarizes my thoughts:

“No matter how daring or cautious you may choose to be, in the course of your life you are bound to come into direct physical contact with what’s known as Evil. . . No amount of good nature or cunning calculations will prevent this encounter. . . Such is the structure of life that what we regard as Evil is capable of a fairly ubiquitous presence if only because it tends to appear in the guise of good. You never see it crossing your threshold, announcing itself: “Hi, I’m Evil!” That, of course, indicates its secondary nature, but the comfort one may derive from this observation gets dulled by its frequency.” (Brodsky & Brodsky, 2020)

Brodsky concludes, “The surest defense against Evil is extreme individualism, originality of thinking, whimsicality, even if you will— eccentricity. That is something that can’t be feigned, faked, imitated; something even a seasoned imposter couldn’t be happy with. Something, in other words, that can’t be shared, like your own skin.” (Brodsky & Brodsky, 2020)

Brodsky and other essayists influenced by him (including people of color, Gwendolyn Brooks, Robert Hayden, etc.) suggest in their writing that the concepts of equality and inclusion require democracy, something we are being challenged to reconsider. The questions that advocates for social justice must ask are: What constitutes a moral victory? And what would this type of victory look like in our present day?

In 2026, those of us in the helping professions must re-examine what battles we are willing to fight and possibly die for, if current trends continue. We must also accept that some problems are larger than past solutions we proposed to fix them.

As the year ends, we must mourn our losses and celebrate our wins, as well as what good remains in both individuals and their actions—the intertwine. We must do so with the potential for contentment and with a commitment to refocus our efforts, balancing the things we cherish with what we have condemned and judged as equal to death. We must, in every chapter of life, learn from history, not ours alone, but from others. And to carefully twist the strands of dissension and unanimity in ways that preserve what we most want to see and communicate to the world. Our values and how we wish to be remembered by those who knew us. In short, we must continue to endure in what we believe, while educating those who will listen to what seems irreconcilable. We must press forward. We must fight. We must continue the work.

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References:

Brodsky, J., & Brodsky, J. (2020, September 16). A commencement address. The New York Review of Books. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1984/08/16/a-commencement-address/

General, O. O. T. S. (2024). Firearm violence in the U.S.: Death and injury. Firearm Violence: A Public Health Crisis in America - NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK605168/

NAACP. (2021, July 7). Gun Violence Prevention Issue Brief. https://naacp.org/resources/gun-violence-prevention-issue-brief

Universal Health Coverage Day 2025. (n.d.). https://www.who.int/campaigns/universal-health-coverage-day/2025

Retracing our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

Photo by Lindsey Mataeo

B E L I E F

“When it feels disheartening to learn that trauma changes the brain, remember that healing changes the brain too.”

-Poppy Leigh

By Sterling Hawkins, MSW, LCSW, LICSW

I want to end this series with "Belief" because beliefs shape our values and define our spiritual, moral, and ethical core.  Belief is more than a religion.  It's also about a connection to something greater than oneself.  There are many types of Belief Systems.  Let’s examine some of them:

Religious- embodies questions about the nature of the divine, the afterlife, and moral standards.

Scientific- influences our understanding and interpretation of natural and physical phenomena.

Philosophical- seeks to answer life’s fundamental questions about our existence, reality, knowledge, values, and morality.

Political- shapes how societies should be organized, and the distribution of power, rights, and resources for the populace.

Economic- defines how societies produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.

Cultural- examines a collection of beliefs, values, and attitudes that are shared by members of a particular culture, that shape their worldview.  (Drew, 2023)

From this short list, we see that Belief Systems are diverse, complex, and share some things in common.

In the beginning, before civilizations evolved, there was a connection, an attachment, an intimacy, and rootedness in the sacredness of everyday life, which philosopher Thomas Moore calls the primary source of religion.  (Moore, 1992, p.203)

 Religious belief systems must provide a sense of structure and predictability, in conjunction with established guidelines that aid a person's ability to distinguish right from wrong when coping with difficult life circumstances.  It should also teach compassion, forgiveness, and gratitude.  And finally, it should provide a community that offers support and safe social engagement.  (Nami & Nami, 2024)

However, over time, this awareness of the sacred was lost.  While many reasons can be attributed to this, it is critical to understand what has happened in the context of forced migration that was experienced by Black people who were enslaved along with other Indigenous groups for 300 years (1500s - 1860s).

What was lost was more than a native homeland, property, and cultural wealth.  What was lost was an identity centered on traditional and legendary stories woven into rituals and origins of myth and historical facts.

African Americans, due to the many atrocities described in my previous essays, have both a fragile and durable sense of identity because of what has been taken from us.  And because of what we have had to do to rebuild and restore it.  Fragile in the sense that many of us have been in recovery for decades from retracing the effects of racism, sexism, ageism, and economic injustice.  At the same time, we are made more durable by remembering our origins- community, family, faith, perseverance, and social justice.

Intergenerational Trauma is at the root of many evils.  Our trauma experiences shape what we believe and influence how we behave, even without our conscious awareness. 

When Africans were transported to an alien land and enslaved, the effect was no less than shattering.  Dispossession destroyed their traditional culture and disrupted social organization, depriving them of their orientation to the world as it had previously been known.  "The organization of labour and the system of social control and discipline on the plantation both tended to prevent the development of social cohesion on the basis of whatever remnants of African culture might have survived or on the basis of the Negroes’ role in the plantation economy." (Frazier 1969, p.3)

Colonization and enslavement prohibited Africans from preserving their native language.  The transient nature of plantation life, where man, woman, or child could be sold on a whim, contributed to this loss of cultural heritage.  Moreover, it was nearly impossible for the enslaved to meet openly or assemble without the presence of a white overseer.  This applied especially to their gathering for religious purposes.  (Frazier, 1969, p.3)

“Men, women, and children who were captured and transported to the Americas on slave ships brought with them their own religious beliefs and practices.  Some were practitioners of African traditional religions like Yoruba and Vodun; others were Muslim or Catholic.  But they were all often seen as heathens by the colonists, who found justification for enslaving them in interpretations of biblical scriptures.  " (Hannah-Jones & Magazine, 2022, p. 340)

Yoruba and Vodun were the primary West African-based religions with shared origins.  Both believe in a supreme God and venerate deities that serve as intermediaries between God and humanity.  Both utilize divination to seek guidance and insight into current and future situations.  They each utilize rituals, ceremonies, and offerings to connect with the spiritual world and to seek blessings and guidance.   (Encyclopedia of African Religion, 2009)

Their differences are minor.  First, geographically, Vodun originated primarily among West African cultures, and Yoruba was practiced mainly in southwestern Nigeria.  Second, rituals and ceremonies - While both religions share the veneration of ancestors, Vodun differs in that it incorporates more elements of nature and physical objects.  In contrast, Yoruba culture emphasizes honoring the spirits of the dead, who are believed to have a profound influence on the living.  (Encyclopedia of African Religion, 2009)

While there are other religious belief systems throughout the African continent, most traditional African religions share similarities with the Yoruba and Vodou practices.

Enslaved Africans in time, however, would gradually be introduced into the religious life of their white masters and learn to adapt many of their beliefs from the old world to the new.  (Frazier, 1969, p.3).

Traditional beliefs in West African religions can be further categorized by examining the characteristics that define the unity of most religious belief systems, both ancient and modern.  I have listed below what I believe to be the five most essential characteristics that have remained and that have been integrated into contemporary culture:

Belief in a Supreme Being - Ancient and modern religions acknowledge the belief in a single, all-powerful creator or deity.

Afterlife and the Soul - When a person dies, their soul continues to exist in a different realm or state.

Ancestral Reverence - Honoring and respecting ancestors, both living and dead, is a way to remain connected to the past.

Sacredness in Nature - The natural environment offers humanity resources both for survival and for its beauty to be admired.

Moral Codes and Ethics - Ancient and modern beliefs incorporate moral codes and ethical guidelines that govern social behavior and interaction.

 It's interesting to note that many of these general characteristics are found not only in traditional African religions but also in religious beliefs worldwide, making them universal.

I cannot speak about Black culture without acknowledging the Black church.  You may be asking what the Black church is, and how the Black church differs from any other church.  I want to take a few minutes to explore the concept of the Black church from a historical perspective, rather than a contemporary or denominational one.

The term "the Black Church" evolved from the phrase "the Negro Church," the title of a pioneering sociological study of African American Protestant churches at the turn of the century (1903) by W.E.B. Du Bois.  African Americans, however, preferred instead to think of themselves as belonging to denominational affiliations such as Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, or Catholic. "The Black church was never monolithic.  Its people are diverse and its churches highly decentralized." (God in America- the Black Church, n.d.)

"The black church refers to the collective religious institutions and communities established by African Americans, which serve as a foundation for spiritual growth, cultural identity, and social activism.  This institution has played a crucial role in the development of African American religious traditions, providing a space for worship, community building, and resistance against oppression throughout history.”  (Intro to African American Studies Review- Key Term- the Black Church, n.d.)

There is general agreement with this definition and the concepts have broad implications.  While the contemporary expression of religious beliefs within the African American community may be diverse, all mainstream denominations share a common root in the belief in a Supreme Being or Creator, as well as a Moral and Ethical Code.  The application of this belief varies among multi-ethnic churches.  But, because of the injustice inflicted on African Americans, most Black churches focus on a theology that integrates education, economic empowerment, and social welfare with how all of humanity should live and be treated by others.  Racial oppression resulted in the loss of social cohesion within the Black community, and the need to retain and pass down the practices that have preserved the culture, however challenging that might be.

Social cohesion is the strength of relationships and the solidarity among members of a community. It influences how people interact, collaborate, and support one another.  It is the integration of diverse individuals into a unified whole, promoting a sense of trust and mutual respect among members, reducing social conflict, and enhancing cooperation.  Various factors contribute to social cohesion, including cultural, economic, political, and religious elements. "Religion often plays a significant role by providing a common set of values and beliefs that unify individuals and strengthen community bonds." (Devappa, 2014)

The Black Church comprises all of these things.  And like all major religions, it establishes a rationale for belief.  A rationale some may find hard to define or refuse to accept but exists nonetheless within the soul of every living being.

Because the influence of religious belief is so prevalent not only within the African American community but among society in general, I cannot ignore its potential to aid those afflicted by the effects of Intergenerational Trauma or provide insight that may explain the psychosocial dilemmas that have become woven into our daily habits and interpersonal relationships.

As a clinical social worker, this is where I find myself- working through my own trauma and the collective traumas of others, while asking the question- What are the most helpful therapeutic practices that bring healing to those who identify with a religious belief system in the African American community?

So, when working with African American clients who acknowledge a history that is assessed by a therapist to be linked to intergenerational trauma, and who engage in some form of spiritual (religious or unidentified) belief system, the following list provides several essentials for working with this population.

Historical Context:

Mental health providers working with African American clients should be aware of the unique historical and cultural context that has shaped their clients' experiences.  This includes understanding the impact of slavery, Jim Crow, and institutional racism on mental health.

Cultural Competence:

Providers must be sensitive to the cultural beliefs and values of African American families, while respecting their diverse experiences and acknowledging the significant roles of community and family in the healing process.

Addressing Stigma:

African Americans may face stigma surrounding mental health treatment.  Therefore, providers should create an environment that allows clients to feel comfortable seeking help.

Family History:

Encouraging clients to explore their family history can help them understand the origins of intergenerational trauma and identify patterns of resilience and survival.

Empowerment and Resilience:

Providers of services should emphasize the strength and resilience of African American individuals and their families, helping them identify their sources of strength and effective coping mechanisms.

A Final Word

Many clients have distanced themselves from their religious beliefs (if they were raised in a particular faith tradition) because they have experienced emotional and/or physical trauma from persons who were once deemed trustworthy but proved otherwise.  Or, for reasons more germane to its (religion's) perceived failure in providing relevant alternatives in line with a secular worldview.  Regardless of the reasons, practitioners working with all individuals, irrespective of their ethnicity, must first be aware of their own positive or negative experiences with a faith tradition and work with clients who express an interest in exploring their spirituality within or outside of their identified faith tradition with curiosity and non-judgment.  (Spirituality and Therapy: Reinvention, Doubt and Healing, 2024)

As with all trauma-work, clients who present with complicated histories involving intergenerational trauma require a safe space to be heard by the therapist and allowed to tell their unique story, while expressing emotions that have been repressed, that are labeled as bitterness, shame, or guilt in relating how they have felt betrayed by their faith or family who committed harm in the name of religion.

African Americans may need help re-examining their belief systems, values, and faith traditions, while expressing doubt and struggling with contradictions between what they were taught and their lived experiences.  This can involve identifying sources of conflict, finding new meaning in or interpretations of traditional beliefs and practices, and creating new spiritual practices aimed at personal transformation.

Ultimately, by inviting people of color to retrace their past and remember their origins, mental health providers are educating others to find religious and/or spiritual practices aimed at healing from trauma.  The healing of longstanding wounds resulting from intergenerational trauma is a process that requires grieving the loss, developing meaningful personal rituals or social activities, and remembrances aligned with the client's interest and knowledge about what they think will be helpful, not only in addressing their own trauma but also similar trauma identified within their families and their community.

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References

Devappa, M. K. (2014). THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN SOCIAL COHESION. In International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR), International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR) (Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 360–362) [Journal-article]. https://www.ijrar.org/papers/IJRAR19D5972.pdf

Drew, C. (2023, September 7). Belief Systems: Definition, Characteristics & Examples (2025). Helpful Professor. https://helpfulprofessor.com/belief-systems/

Encyclopedia of African Religion. (2009). Sage Publications. Retrieved May 28, 2025, from https://afroart.ru/books/Encyclopedia-of-African-religion.pdf?srsltid=AfmBOopCBfvbf-hX-0dsLkzwvEtBTGrJmJly5uU0JUEQCFkLODLMdPF2

Frazier, E. F. (1969). The Negro Church in America [by] E. Franklin Frazier.

God in America- the Black Church. (n.d.). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/godinamerica-black. Retrieved May 28, 2025, from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/godinamerica-black

Hannah-Jones, N., & Magazine, N. Y. T. (2022). The 1619 project: A New Origin Story. National Geographic Books.

Intro to African American Studies Review- Key Term- The Black Church. (n.d.). https://library.fiveable.me/key-terms/introduction-african-american-studies/black-church. Retrieved May 28, 2025, from https://library.fiveable.me/key-terms/introduction-african-american-studies/black-church

Moore, T. (1992). Care of the Soul : How to add depth and meaning to your everyday life. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA46460909

Nami, & Nami. (2024, February 7). The mental health benefits of religion & spirituality. National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). https://www.nami.org/faith-community-leader/the-mental-health-benefits-of-religion-spirituality/

Spirituality and therapy: Reinvention, doubt and Healing. (2024, December 12). Heal Your Roots Wellness. https://www.healyourrootswellness.com/blog/spirituality-and-therapy-reinvention-doubt-and-healing-from-religious-trauma/?srsltid=AfmBOorESHaRdFxjHvdD_qgO4uoA9VWwoD7WlZ2M7GhKOGE1AbbX2IyH

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

Photo by. Yan. Krukau

P R O F I T - NOW

“Wealth is not only a question of financial savings; it provides access to the political process and therefore, exerts political influence. . . Eliminating the disparities between Black and white wealth is a generational undertaking, but it is one this country can and must tackle.”

—Center for American Progress

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

While the focus of this essay is on financial wealth, it’s important to see wealth as distinct from income. For the Black community, wealth has always represented social power and influence that provides access to education, housing, and healthcare. Therefore, wealth is best defined as a state of being. The concept of wealth is one that endures both within and across generations. And this is why Blacks have struggled to attain it. And over the last century, African Americans have experienced some gains. Financial wellbeing is the first step that allows individual families and communities to meet current and ongoing financial commitments while feeling secure about their future.

In 1921, two Black American entrepreneurs, O.W. Gurley and J.B. Stratford formed an informal partnership to develop Greenwood, an all-Black district in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Both men shared a vision of self-sufficiency—a community where they could remain independent from white communities and escape the Jim Crow South. Their story began in 1906 when Gurley arrived in Tulsa, purchased land, began subdividing it, and sold plots exclusively to other Blacks.

Stratford, who was already a resident of Tulsa, focused on real estate, building rental units and eventually a luxury hotel that became the symbol of Greenwood’s prosperity. Their estimated net worth was over $150,000—equivalent to nearly 7.5 million today.

Between 1910 - 1920 Tulsa’s population grew nearly fourfold. The Greenwood district famously known as the Black Wallstreet of America grew into almost 40 city blocks, home to 108 Black-owned businesses (physicians, lawyers, bankers and businessmen and women) with its own hospital, banks, theaters, library, salons, restaurants, and numerous churches, serving a population of over 11,000 people.  (Long, 2025)

“On the morning of June 1, 1921, this financially independent and vibrant community that had been built and sustained by Blacks became the site of one of the worst race massacres in US History, fueled by white supremacists, where hundreds of people were killed, thousands were left homeless by fires, and hard-earned, substantial Black wealth and prosperity were destroyed.”  (South et al., 2022)

The conflict arose when two Black men (not Gurley and Stratford) were falsely accused and charged with assault. In retaliation, a white mob looted and burned businesses, churches, homes, and community institutions. “Many residents saw their wealth reduced to ashes. This was not an isolated event, but part of a broader pattern whereby racist Americans have used violence and discriminatory policies— such as redlining, gentrification, and economic exclusion to suppress Black advancement.”  (Long, 2025b)

Present-day racial exclusion is attributable to the many government and institutional policies that were historically instituted by whites to suppress African American progress. “While Blacks contributed to 12 generations of unpaid labor during enslavement that generated tremendous wealth for White families and shored up the U.S. economy, they entered the era of Reconstruction with little to nothing. During the Jim Crow period, laws designed to bolster economic outcomes for specific vulnerable populations— for example, Social Security for older adults and the G.I. Bill for veterans — were structured and executed in such a way to exclude Black people.”  (South et al., 2022b)

To complicate the situation, Blacks were subject to predatory lending by large U.S. banks accompanied by discrimination within the real estate industry that targeted Blacks living in low-income housing. U.S. tax law further complicates these intergenerational disparities, which provide preferential treatment for inherited assets.   (South et al., 2022c)

The impact of such policies creates significant challenges to overcome. The result is seen in culturally defined patterns that explain why some African Americans have suffered more than other marginalized racial groups. Discriminatory public policies have created functional deficits that have become internalized by families and whole communities that are in response to the wealth gap trauma in relation to impaired mental health. Let me explain.

Research studies conclude that individuals from socioeconomically disadvantaged households have higher levels of trauma resulting from unmet needs. The original ACE (Adverse Childhood Experiences) studies began in 1985 as a collaborative research project between the Centers for Disease Control and Kaiser Permanente Health to examine the correlation between childhood trauma and later-life health outcomes.   While the research did not focus on race or ethnicity it did examine “experience”. The childhood experiences labeled as trauma I believe are inclusive and representative of all ethnic groups subjected to prolonged trauma. This includes African American children whose trauma would occur at higher percentages than whites who at the very least possessed some form of health insurance.  (Goldstein et al., 2020)

Researchers examined the following types of trauma— Abuse (physical, emotional, sexual), Neglect (physical and emotional), and finally, Household Challenges (parental separation or divorce, substance abuse, mental illness, incarceration, or domestic violence ).  If any one member within a single household directly experienced one or more of these conditions, their risk for adverse health outcomes increased in proportion to the number of adverse experiences during that individual’s lifespan. Childhood environments that are abusive, neglectful, or present physical and emotional challenges do impact the biopsychosocial development of children. And these experiences have a cumulative effect that extends well into adulthood. Parents and guardians who themselves have experienced trauma may be at a disadvantage in offering their dependent children what they have failed to attain for themselves.  (Goldstein et al., 2020b)

The original ACE study has expanded into branches of new and independent research concerning the effects of trauma. Studies now include— Environments (i.e. the context in which trauma occurs) where individual experiences often originate. Some of these environments include Poverty/ Discrimination/ Community Disruption/ Poor Housing Quality and Affordability/ and Violence.  (“Adverse Childhood Experiences,” 2022)

More recent studies on individual experiences and environmental conditions have reached similar conclusions. Adverse childhood experiences are often linked to adverse family experiences. And adverse family experiences heighten distress, often creating family conflicts and a disruption of primary support systems, role confusion, and shame.   (Reese et al., 2022)

Economic wellness is a critical component of good health. When we examine the outcomes from 200 years of oppression, it’s no mystery to conclude that enslavement, discrimination, and wealth deprivation have dealt a huge physical and psychological blow to many in the African American community.

A strong correlation exists between a safe and stable living environment and optimum mental health. Types of trauma closely associated with economic instability include, but are not limited to, prolonged physical and social conditions involving unemployment, the lack of affordable housing, education, and health care, which often result in toxic levels of distress. Some experience this as chronic depression, anger, avoidance behaviors, anxiety, impulsive decision-making, difficulty with goal setting and problem-solving, interpersonal/relationship conflicts, and denial. Each of these negative cognitive and affective states can be observed existing alone or in combination with other symptoms suggestive of cognitive-behavioral dysfunction. The outcome of unmet needs can be seen in how Black Americans cope with reducing the symptoms associated with financial instability.  

These are tough, multi-systemic problems that are inextricably rooted in generational trauma. It would be unfair to attribute such problems to the absence of wealth alone. However, given that so much of our psychological identity comprises what we own and our perceived net worth, it can't be easily dismissed or ignored.

We cannot ignore or dismiss the severity of intergenerational trauma and its impact on building Black wealth.  What is the solution? How can mental health practitioners best help African American clients affected by low income and financial insecurity?

There are numerous ways to get there, and none without challenges. However, it’s important not to become too enmeshed in the numbers. The research describes what we’ve long believed: that no progress will be made without major social and political shifts toward removing barriers preventing African Americans from competing economically and building wealth.

When working as individuals, it’s helpful to begin on a micro-level and help clients ask themselves, “What can I do to eliminate or minimize how exclusionary policies impact me personally?” When we begin with where the client is, the task becomes more manageable and perhaps more personal in ways that allow clients to see that small changes over time can make a difference in their future and the choices available to their children. These decisions may lead to outcomes that will positively alter their present circumstances and the next generation for their future good. The following three approaches may be helpful.

Talking About Money:

Often, parents wait to start teaching their children about money until they are adolescents. However, understanding money, what it is, and what it can and cannot do for us is foundational to understanding its value and how we choose to allow it to shape our actions.  Such an education begins in early childhood.   If we have always chased after money only to fail and/or to lose it or have it taken away, our experiences will be reflected in those lessons (implicit and explicit) about money we teach others.

We fail to talk about money because of the pain associated with not having it.  As African Americans we need to be aware that our relationship with money is connected to our collective trauma of being without it.  Some of us grew up in less-than-desirable circumstances and never had enough of what we needed.  Therefore, if we are fortunate enough to escape those conditions, we may try to compensate for those losses in ways counterproductive to building wealth.

What this looks like will depend on whatever is lacking.   For some, it was food insecurity; for others, it was being unable to afford nice clothing, a new car, an education, a vacation, or a home.  The thing we always wanted when we were young, but no one in our family possessed.  Or we were told that we couldn't have it because it costs too much, we don’t earn enough, are already in debt, and no one will buy it for us.  All of these scenarios begin with a conversation about money.  (How Black Families Can Build Generational Wealth|U.S. Bank, 2025)

Increasing Financial Literacy:

Talking about money begins with understanding “currency” a fluid concept that can be applied to money and anything with an attached “value”.  As an adult, it’s crucial to define money’s role in your own life before you attempt to teach the concept to your children.  Defining the role that money serves in your life and the value it creates beyond the material things it allows you to purchase is the beginning of developing a healthy relationship with money and its relation to wealth. Because of racial and ethnic disparities, access to financial resources has historically been limited. Now, education on building wealth abounds on numerous social-media platforms. There are also many Blacks serving in the role of: CFP, CFA, CIMA, and CPA, who, through their professional training, are qualified to educate and inform their clients on how best to save, spend, and invest their money.

Clients and Consumers of financial services should do their homework and complete background checks for those individuals and firms they wish to utilize for help. They should compare and contrast what they observe across multiple sources to validate credibility and build a general knowledge base that will allow them to set short- and long-term goals and develop the skills to navigate complex financial environments and systems, access capital, and create economic opportunities.  (Shrm-Cp, 2023)

Adopting an Investment Mindset:

Over the years, African Americans have had a bitter-sweet relationship with investing. Financial investment seems like a foreign concept when you’re worried about the mortgage, rent, or paying for groceries and school fees. I stated previously that it’s complicated because of our history and inability to earn, save, or properly invest for the future. However, developing an investment mindset requires a vision for the future. Your future. Creating a realistic vision based on actual numbers will enable you to grow and expand. It requires a commitment to identifying things that are within your control and things that can be accurately measured. There are multiple ways to adopt an investment mindset. For those seeking to begin the process, I offer the following suggestions:

Start Small: Even investing or saving a small amount of money can be a powerful first step. Experiencing the process of buying and potentially selling an asset, and observing its value fluctuate, provides firsthand learning.

Learn from your Mistakes: Experiencing investment losses (a normal part of the process) and analyzing what went wrong can be a valuable learning opportunity, fostering a more cautious and informed approach in the future.

Regulate your Emotions: Allow skilled mental health therapists to help you develop self-regulation while learning to manage emotions like fear and greed, which can lead to impulsive investment decisions. Emotional regulation requires delayed gratification and patience that prioritizes security.

I believe that, as Black people, our psychological healing with wealth can be summarized in the following quote: “Never ever chase money. You should chase success because with success, money follows.” – Wilfred Emmanuel-Jones  

According to Jones, a successful Black farmer and entrepreneur, having money results from success. What success looks like for you or me may be very different. However, if we fail to define individual success, all we'll do is chase money.  The implication is that we should chase “meaning” with a purpose in mind and not money as an end.  A purpose that is sustainable even in the absence of monetary rewards.

From a generational perspective, we must first ask ourselves what success looks like for our families, neighbors, and communities. When we begin to answer these questions, we will discover that true success has little to do with money.  It's much more than money. It involves reciprocity, giving back, and getting something in return. Then, we can begin to heal, and when we begin to heal, we will begin leaving a rich legacy of wealth that will endure for generations to come.

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References:

Adverse Childhood Experiences. (2022). In https://www.ncsl.org/health/adverse-childhood-experiences. National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved April 27, 2025, from https://www.ncsl.org/health/adverse-childhood-experiences

Goldstein, E., Benton, S. F., & Barrett, B. (2020). Health risk behaviors and resilience among Low-Income, Black primary Care patients. Family & Community Health, 43(3), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1097/fch.0000000000000260

How Black families can build generational wealth | U.S. Bank. (2025, April 23). https://www.usbank.com/wealth-management/financial-perspectives/financial-planning/black-families-build-generational-wealth.html

Long, L. V., Sr. (2025, February 25). Rebuilding Black Wealth: Lessons from Black Wall Street. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/lenwoodvlongsr/2025/02/25/rebuilding-black-wealth-lessons-from-black-wall-street/

Reese, E. M., Barlow, M. J., Dillon, M., Villalon, S., Barnes, M. D., & Crandall, A. (2022). Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma: The mediating effects of family health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 5944. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105944

Shrm-Cp, T. G. M. A. (2023, December 29). Breaking Barriers: The power of Black financial literacy. Money Talk With Tiff. https://moneytalkwitht.com/blog/black-financial-literacy/

South, E., Venkataramani, A., & Dalembert, G. (2022). Building Black Wealth — The role of health systems in closing the gap. New England Journal of Medicine, 387(9), 844–849. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmms2209521

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

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P R O F I T - THEN

“White households have been able to build wealth for themselves and their descendants, while whatever wealth Black families could amass was regularly stripped away.”

—Center for American Progress

By Sterling Hawkins, MSW, LCSW, LICSW

African Americans have historically had a strained relationship with wealth, which is intertwined with economic, human, physical, and social capital. When Blacks proved valuable to a developing Republic, we were exploited for our labor. When our labor became less profitable due to mechanization, we were physically and socially oppressed, unable to buy and sell property. We were denied due process, judged, and condemned as undeserving.

Whenever a person of color rose above insurmountable odds, they became targets, were vilified, and made an example of what can happen when you reach too far and dream too big. The lesson Blacks learned from systemic racism is that practices embedded in American society were designed to perpetuate inequality. Under such practices in many American institutions, Blacks spent their whole lives just trying to avoid being singled out. They were less ambitious, less hopeful, and often fearful for reasons, having less to do with their competence and resourcefulness and more to do with their denial and punishment.  

This is how intergenerational trauma began to manifest and then become embedded over time into the fabric of the Black community. Social scientists believe these are adaptive strategies aimed at survival and avoiding harm (psychological and physical).

The downside of Capitalism is the inability to attain wealth or lose it simply because others believe you don’t deserve it. Wealth and power require checks and balances. Something that America has struggled with since its infancy.  Equality and Want coexist but are rivals under a democratic system. An example of this can be seen in the New Deal Policies proposed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882 - 1945).  

FDR’s New Deal forced many Black farmers off their land and failed to support them in their efforts to create opportunities for social justice.  Two such policies- Relief for the Poor and Unemployed and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration were of no benefit to Blacks due to discrimination and exclusionary practices.  Blacks were excluded under Jim Crow (1865 1968)- a system of segregation and disenfranchisement introduced in the South to preserve racial discrimination.  On April 11, 1968, The  U.S. Congress and President Lyndon B. Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 that prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and other factors.

In the twenty-first century, all American citizens expected their government to protect their civil rights. Before the 1960s, most Americans embraced the notion that police powers (i.e., laws that govern safety, health, welfare, and morals) were reserved for individual states and did not envision the federal government protecting their health and safety.  Black civil rights organizations of the 1950s and 1960s campaigned against laws that discriminated against people of color that had existed from the early 1900s. (NAACP’s Anti-Lynching Campaigns: The Quest for Social Justice in the Interwar Years, n.d.)

Under state law, Blacks were often subject to arrest, conviction, and incarceration without a jury. Under Jim Crow, the 6th and 7th Amendments (1791), which guarantee individuals the right to trial by jury in both civil and criminal cases, were not enforced or equitably applied in cases involving Black defendants. The result was that many Blacks were charged for crimes that they never committed.  Having been denied due process, we had our property confiscated from us simply because we demonstrated industry and ambition that our white neighbors found threatening.  

In the South, death by lynching was a probable outcome for Blacks wrongly convicted.  It is estimated that there were approximately 6,500 documented racially motivated lynchings between 1865 and 1950.  (Reconstruction in America - Report Overview | Equal Justice Initiative, 2022).

Employment for Black households In the Jim Crow South was often limited, with low wages; when men were removed from the home without expectation of returning, families dependent on such income frequently failed, allowing the state to come and repossess our property and personal belongings, leaving many families destitute.  From 1901 to the 1930s, American wealth was primarily found in land and property ownership.

Land rights have historically always been prized by all (whites and Blacks) in an agricultural society. Blacks, too, were tied to the land through their suffering enslavement and by the potential it held to free them from a life of poverty. If only they could acquire it and hold onto it.

The following account highlights the challenges that many Blacks who were fortunate enough to own property faced.

“For years, I always heard my mother speak about "the land." Often, when she spoke about it, it would be with that somewhat shy and embarrassed tone that educated black folks living up north use when talking about the folks they left back home. It was one of those pieces of history that over time had to become myth or else you would spend too much time worrying over it. . .  Larry Boy, my mother's cousin, who was just a few years older then me, carried around a briefcase full of papers. Every now and then, he would call us, soliciting funds for a lawsuit over the land. I reacted like my mother until one day, I went to Natchez [Mississippi] for a family reunion and looked at Larry's papers. The papers told a pretty straightforward story, though I cannot remember it all now. It seems that we could have been oil barons.

Apparently, my mother's father or great-grandfather had a piece of land back in the 1920s that I think was given to him by the owners of a plantation where he was a slave. He kept this land until the 1920s, when someone claimed he had not paid taxes on the land. The land was then seized, auctioned and purchased by one of the rich families of Natchez. Then, oil was found on the land. This is the story Larry told me as he pulled a photocopy of a tax receipt showing that my great-grandfather had paid his taxes and that the land was really stolen from him. Then he showed me more papers about the lawsuit filed against the thieves by my mother's uncle and papers declaring an old aunt, the rightful heir, insane so they could file the suit.

Everybody agreed that he shouldn't have. He was probably cheated. But this was 1950s Natchez, now. He was black. Not well educated. They were white, and they were the law. What more was there to say? So everyone got a couple of hundred dollars rather than tens of thousands, perhaps. It could have given my family some real wealth, something for us to inherit that would put us on equal footing rather than a legacy of oppression and slavery that everyone tries to convince us is more myth than real. Today, Larry Boy still goes to city hall, poring over records and worrying about a piece of land that must now be a superfund site. So whenever people mention the word reparations, I think of the land (and so must the heirs of those who stole it).”

Stephen Casmier
St. Louis, MO (American Public Media, n.d.)

What do we hear in this person’s story? We should hear disbelief that a loss of this type has occurred. And that this type of loss in a just, democratic society is preventable.

Accompanying disbelief is denial. Denial in the sense that a person’s livelihood and wealth has been intentionally and illegally stolen from them without pretense. We should feel the succession of time and the efforts to correct a wrong that in the end is likely to remain unchanged.

Finally, we should hear the shame in the words “somewhat shy and embarrassed” in the telling of this story and how those who hear the shame avoid repeating it. An untold story is not repeated and becomes unknown to the next generation. Such stories are eventually forgotten.

This is an example of how trauma is passed from one generation to the next involving wealth. There are thousands of stories like this. Most are undocumented and forgotten. Some of these stories involve real estate or homes. Others involve equipment, livestock, or business interests. All of these stories represent wealth that absconded from rightful ownership.

If you are a mental health provider who serves individuals and families who have experienced this type of trauma related to wealth, what is one thing you can do that may help heal the emotional wounds that result from disentitlement?

I believe the one thing mental health providers can do is to allow people who have experienced this type of trauma to tell their stories and share their experiences in a safe and supportive environment. The focus of this type of storytelling should be to assist families with adjusting or building adaptive skills that correct misinformation, clarify interpretations and attributions, and develop empathy for the pain inherent in the story. The goal is to build resilience that may help the family cope with future stressors. Families who narrate the best and worst life experiences can pass down a heritage of memories from one generation to the next. Through story-telling, families can illuminate and combine their separate experiences into a meaningful whole. (Kiser et al., 2010)

The impact of story-telling on the education of children is critical. “Families using a coordinated narrative interaction style teach their children that they are part of a unified, cohesive family whose members understand and work through positive. and negative life experiences together. (Kiser et al., 2010)

In the end, we must remember to help others reflect on their loss, what remains in the aftermath, and what still needs to be preserved or reclaimed. And in the words of the late author and activist W.E.B Du Bois, we must remember that “the cost of liberty is less than the price of repression.”

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References:

American Public Media. (n.d.). Blacks remember Jim Crow | Remembering Jim Crow. https://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/remembering/blacks.html

Kiser, L. J., Baumgardner, B., & Dorado, J. (2010). Who are we, but for the stories we tell: Family stories and healing. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 2(3), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019893

NAACP’s Anti-Lynching Campaigns: The quest for social justice in the interwar years. (n.d.). NEH-Edsitement. https://edsitement.neh.gov/curricula/naacps-anti-lynching-campaigns-quest-social-justice-interwar-years

Reconstruction in America - Report Overview | Equal Justice Initiative. (2022, October 25). Equal Justice Initiative. https://eji.org/reports/reconstruction-in-america-overview/

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

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S U B S I S T E N C E

“Our ancestral grandmothers braided seeds of okra and millet and rice and sorghum — all their cherished crops — into their hair before being forced to board transatlantic slave ships. They believed, against the odds, in a future in the soil. And with those seeds they also braided cultural tradition about how we interact with land, how we take care of the soil, and how we share resources and labor.” — Leah Penniman

By Sterling Hawkins, MSW, LCSW, LICSW

Closely linked to “Home” is the ability to create a meaningful life. A life that ensures you and your progeny will subsist and progress toward sustainability. This is the life goal of many who endure forced migration. In the United States the phrase “The American Dream” aptly describes this process. A forward momentum marked by struggle and suffering to achieve the best life possible.

The United States Senate on April 8, 1864, passed a joint resolution calling for an amendment (Thirteenth) to the Constitution that ended slavery, but the House of Representatives failed to pass it. Pressure on Republican leadership in the House to pass the resolution intensified, and the resolution finally succeeded on January 31, 1865. The proposed amendment stated that "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction," and authorized Congress to enforce the amendment with appropriate legislation. (Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation | Articles and Essays | Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress | Digital Collections | Library of Congress, n.d.-a)

One of the problems created for white landowners after enslaved Blacks were emancipated was the problem of labor. The primary source of economic industry in the south was agriculture. White landowners were dependent on slavery to remain profitable. The very livelihood of Black farmers was threatened. Consequently, the problem Blacks faced was how to earn a living. Farming for many enslaved peoples was their only acquired skill. While various industries (carpentry, masonry, blacksmiths, tanners, housemaids, and weavers) were linked to agriculture, planting and harvesting crops (cotton, corn, potatoes, peanuts, vegetables), remained the work that offered large numbers of freed Blacks the opportunity to remain employed.

Skilled field labor was essential to maintaining several hundred-acre farms. The absence of skilled fieldhands would spell economic doom for white farmers. Cotton was the predominant cash crop during this period and a time-sensitive commodity.

Faced with the possibility of economic ruin for white landowners pitted against the needs of Blacks for property and homes to live in and raise their families, combined with their need for earned income, a new system would evolve that, in many ways, was not much different from the institution of slavery- That new system was Sharecropping.

Sharecropping was the result of an original promise given by then president Lincoln gone bad. The plan 40 acres and a mule proposed by a group of Black ministers and Gen. William T. Sherman and other Union leaders who met in Savannah, Georgia in January 1865 to set aside land (roughly 400,000 acres) on the Southeast coast designed to give"each family (estimated to be 40 acres) a plot of tillable ground. The plan known as “Special Order 15” later became known as “Forty Acres And A Mule”. The plan however was short lived because the Union leaders realized that although they confiscated the land during the War, now that it was over they had no legal entitlement to give the land to Freed Blacks. It was a bait and switch because it left Blacks to fend for themselves while the Union Army maintained a small visible presence. Union soldiers could not force Confederate soldiers who weren’t killed during the war to relinquish their land to Freed Blacks. The reversal left many Blacks with few options but to become sharecroppers. (McCammon, 2015a)

Sharecropping was essentially a contractual arrangement between white landowners and Freed Blacks that would impose conditions not much different from slavery. The working conditions imposed on Blacks governed their very existence, stipulating working six days per week at ten or more hours per day. Contracts forbid them to leave the property without permission from the landowner or have visitors without first notifying the landowner and, in some cases, to marry. Blacks who refused to abide by these rules could leave unless they were already indebted. In most cases indebtedness would occur the moment the contract was ratified.

Generations of Black southerners were forced to labor against their will. Because their share of the profits was dependent on crop sales, Freed Blacks were loaned property, a plow, some tools, a mule, or a horse to work a small plot of land for purchase from white landowners. The psychological effects of slavery was the subjugation of Blacks in ways that were demoralizing and disempowering. Reducing the autonomy of Blacks to move about and own property was a way for whites to foster financial paternalism. When crop yields were high the interest on their shares was used to pay down on their loan. When crop yields were low (which was often) the deficit increased and the lost interest was added to the existing loan. Under such conditions, it was almost impossible for Blacks to get out of debt, which amounted to enslavement by default. (Slavery by Another Name | Episode 1, 2012)

Peonage was the legal term used to describe involuntary servitude. A system where an employer compels a worker to pay off debt with work. It is estimated that at least 800,000 Blacks were impacted by this system. It wasn’t until 1941 (77 years) after the 13th Amendment was ratified by the U.S. Constitution that President Franklin D. Roosevelt took steps to push back against Peonage by having the Attorney General’s Office draft Circular 3591, a directive that empowered federal attorneys to aggressively prosecute any case of involuntary servitude or slavery and thereby uphold the rights of African Americans. Roosevelt linked this directive to his World War II efforts. A time when the U.S. Military needed to increase recruitment in all branches of service. Blacks however continued to face significant discrimination and mistreatment even while serving their country. However, segregated units also known as “Buffalo Soldiers” afforded Blacks some independence and limited opportunity to prove that they were equal to the task of their white counterparts. This effort was made in conjunction with Roosevelt’s “New Deal” policies that sought to provide relief and recovery for people suffering from social and economic depression. It was a bold start that allowed the federal government to play a key role in the lives of Americans. However, it primarily benefited white Americans. Blacks were often left to fend for themselves. (Slavery by Another Name | Episode 1, 2012) This will be seen more clearly in my next essay titled: “Profit.”

The use of Black labor along with the labor of other People of Color for the purpose of industrial development has inherently been fueled by exploitation. Such development is often referred to in more recent times as Structural Racism- defined as a system of “laws, rules or official policies in a society that result in and support a continued unfair advantage to some people and unfair or harmful treatment of others based on race.” This system is deeply rooted in our patterns of socioeconomic inequality attributed to discrimination based on race. (Structural Racism, 2025)

The 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act is reported to be America’s first “farm bill” under the US Department of Agriculture (USDA). It was designed to intentionally help southern [white] planters and push poor Black sharecroppers off the land and consolidate their holdings. The design of this bill allowed the US government to pay farmers who were large landowners to curtail their production in order to keep prices high. White farmers used this money to purchase tractors and other heavy equipment to outcompete small farmers, including Black farmers. With production cut, the need for manual labor decreased in the field due to mechanization. Large white owned farms also became dependent on USDA funds which reinforced Structural Racism toward small Black owned farms. White farmers thereby pushed out Black farmers, and share croppers, that forced them to migrate to cities in search of non-agricultural jobs. (The Great Black Depression, n.d.)

The success of this displacement effort was largely due to white farmers in rural communities who were elected by county committees of predominantly racists white southerners to receive and allocate federal funding in the form of subsidies and loans to white farmers and not to Blacks. Rules were often stipulated that ensured the majority of federal funding would go to white and not Black farmers. All farms would suffer from decreased prices, but large farms were able to weather the storm. From 1950 to 1974, small farmers, many who were Black, lost two-thirds of their land. Congress failed to address the disappearance of America’s small farmers, as proposals for land redistribution or collective farming were attacked as communist. The result has been the massive decline of US farms from 1920 to today. (The Great Black Depression, n.d.)

Enslavement and Peonage experienced by Blacks in the United States had long-lasting traumatic effects. “The marginalization of African Americans based on race has been normalized across systems and institutions of the United States and continues to impact African Americans today.” (Scott-Jones et al.,2020)

“For Black Americans, the freedom struggle has been a centuries-long fight against their own fellow Americans and against the very government intended to uphold the rights of its citizens.” (Hannah-Jones & Magazine, 2021, p. 453)

The “Freedom Struggle” and its decades of momentum have led to some gains for generations of African Americans. However, the psychological impact remains in the form of high-level stress and anxiety originating from unpredictable environmental conditions such as drought, pests, and soil degradation. When combined with fluctuating markets, crop failures, and the lack of government aid programs, these factors have produced a sense of hopelessness among the African American farming community and perpetuated a cycle of indebtedness and hopelessness transmitted from one generation to the next. When life is reduced to survival, one’s legacy and purpose are diminished.

What is important to remember when helping People of Color today whose livelihood depends on the land is that most love the land and farming that has been passed down to them from their ancestors. Land purchased with their entire life savings and the balance with a bank loan. Third and fourth-generation farmers often are still paying off debt from the previous generation. Some become bankrupt and are simply awaiting inevitable foreclosure on their properties. Fatigue, heart failure, discrimination, displacement, and even suicide are all effects of trauma and the cumulative impact of indebtedness that often leads to premature death when other risk factors have been accounted for. The underlying fear for most Black farmers is that they will be unable to produce the collateral required to secure loans, which puts them at risk of losing everything.

One farm psychologist who works with rural farmers said: “So many of the factors that are important to farming successfully are outside our control. We can’t control the weather. We have limited influence on markets and policies that regulate agriculture and only a little more control over factors such as disease outbreaks and machinery breakdowns. But we have a lot of control over our behaviors. We choose whether or not we get enough productive sleep, take time to communicate to our family members and work partners, whether we consume a proper diet, recreate, pray, and engage in the many activities that take care of our minds and bodies.  We choose whether or not to take risks, to plan properly and to communicate honestly.” (Admin & Admin, 2012)

Mental health providers who seek to serve the Black farming community must first listen to the stories of those who remain engaged in the struggle for independence and land ownership. They must gain an appreciation for their restrictions over the forces that govern the family’s livelihood. Finally, rural community mental health providers must stay connected and engage existing support networks (family, neighbors, and friends) and other resources to minimize barriers to treatment.

Leah Penniman, co-founder of Soul Fire Farm and author of “Farming While Black” (2018) summarizes what practitioners can do to help:

To support farmers of color and their traditions, Penniman says, “We can do that person to person […] it’d just be wonderful to all reach out to farmers of color and other leaders of color in the community and say ‘how can I help?’ But larger shifts must take place for white people to adequately support these farmers. The biggest shift is going from knowing to not knowing, and from speaking to listening.” (Walla, 2018)

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References

Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation | Articles and Essays | Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress | Digital Collections | Library of Congress. (n.d.). The Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/collections/abraham-lincoln-papers/articles-and-essays/abraham-lincoln-and-emancipation/

Admin, & Admin. (2012, March 30). Dr. Rosmann introduces himself | AG Industry News - Farm and Livestock Directory. Ag Industry News - Farm and Livestock Directory. https://farmandlivestockdirectory.com/47137/5576/dr-rosmann-introduces-himself

Hannah-Jones, N., & Magazine, N. Y. T. (2021). The 1619 project: A New Origin Story. One World.The Great Black Depression. (n.d.).

McCammon, S. (2015a, January 12). The story behind “40 Acres and a Mule.” NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/01/12/376781165/the-story-behind-40-acres-and-a-mule

Scott-Jones G; CAADC; Kamara MR; PE. The Traumatic Impact of Structural Racism on African Americans. Dela J Public Health. (2020) Nov 7;6(5):80-82. doi: 10.32481/djph.2020.11.019. PMID: 34467171; PMCID: PMC8352535.

Slavery by Another Name | Episode 1. (2012, February 12). PBS. https://www.pbs.org/video/slavery-another-name-slavery-video/ structural racism. (2025).

Structural Racism. (2025b). https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/structural-racism

Walla, K. (2018, October 5). If farmers of color don’t own land, “We don’t have a voice in the food system.” Food Tank. https://foodtank.com/news/2018/10/if-farmers-of-color-dont-own-land-we-dont-have-a-voice-in-the-food-system/

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

Photo by Muffin Creatives

H O M E

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

“The ache for home lives in all of us. The safe place where we can go as we are and not be questioned.” —Maya Angelou

Where we are free, we feel safe. When we are safe, we feel known. Where we are known, we call that place home.

From the late 1800s, enslaved people began sharing their stories of captivity. Some of these stories were shared from person to person and from one plantation to another.  Some of the first-person accounts would survive several generations. These verbal accounts would be told by the grandchildren of enslaved people who were no longer enslaved but free.

I was surprised to learn how many of these oral histories exist. They provide a glimpse of what today seems unimaginable and remotely foreign until my mind flashes back to the images of young immigrant children and their parents being paraded through containment camps and separated by US Customs and Border Patrol Officers and caged like animals in 2019.

A parent is someone known to a child. Therefore, the child’s only reflection of home is the parent in a foreign land. I remember in grade school reading about a dark period in Germany’s history when, from 1933 to 1941, entire Jewish communities consisting of mothers, fathers, children, and their relatives were herded like cattle into railway box cars and carried to their deaths at several concentration camps throughout Germany and Poland.

I’m reminded of the Trail of Tears when, over twenty years (1830-1850), approximately one hundred thousand Indigenous people were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States and relocated onto government reservations known as “Indian Territory”. Many, due to the conditions of their surrender, did not survive the trip. But would die homeless en route to a wasteland void of fertility.

These examples are each different and speak to other aspects of dispossession. At best, each involves what is inhumane and traumatic; at its worst, extermination and death.

The Transatlantic Slave trade from the early 1500s to the mid-1800s was a great evil. Millions of Africans were kidnapped and forced onto European and American ships and trafficked across the Atlantic Ocean to be enslaved, abused, and forever separated from their homes, families, and cultures. Being extracted from their homes was only the beginning of the suffering they would face.

The following is a narrative from the National Humanities Center’s Vol. I 1500 -1865 titled “Capture: Selections from the Narratives of Former Slaves.” The Center is a private non-profit institute dedicated to education and public engagement that interprets the human experience. The subject is identified and archived only as “Aunt Adeline” in WPA (Works Projects Administration) records. The narrative was submitted by a man identified as  John Brown, who was enslaved in Alabama and interviewed in Oklahoma in 1937.

One day a big ship stopped off the shore and the natives hid in the brush along the beach. Grandmother was there. The ship men sent a little boat to the shore and scattered bright things and trinkets on the beach. The natives were curious. Grandmother said everybody made a rush for them things soon as the boat left. The trinkets was fewer than the peoples. Next day the white folks scatter some more. There was another scramble. The natives was feeling less scared, and the next day some of them walked up the gangplank to get things off the plank and off the deck. The deck was covered with things like they’d found on the beach. Two-three hundred natives on the ship when they feel it move. They rush to the side, but the plank was gone. Just dropped in the water when the ship moved away. Folks on the beach started crying and shouting. The ones on the boat was wild with fear. Grandmother was one of them who got fooled, and she say the last thing seen of that place was the natives running up and down the beach waving their arms and shouting like they was mad. They boat men come up from below where they had been hiding and drive the slaves down in the bottom and keep them quiet with whips and clubs.  (National Humanities Center n.d.)

Another account contained in Volume I under the same title is credited to a man by the name identified as Luke Dixon who was enslaved in Virginia and interviewed in Arkansas in 1937.

Ma lived to be a 103 years old. Pa died in 1905 and was 105 years old. I used to set on Grandma’s lap, and she told me about how they used to catch people in Africa. They herded them up like cattle and put them in stalls and brought them on the ship and sold them. She said some they captured they left bound till they come back and sometimes they never went back to get them. They died. They had room in the stalls on the boat to set down or lie down. They put several together. Put the men to themselves and the women to themselves. When they sold Grandma and Grandpa at a fishing dock in New Port, VA., they had their feet bound down and their hands crossed, up on a platform. They sold Grandma’s daughter to somebody in Texas. She cried and begged to let them be together. They didn’t pay no ‘tenshion to her. She couldn’t talk but she made them know she didn’t want to be parted. Six years after slavery they got together.  (National Humanities Center n.d.)

We learn from these two accounts that Africans who were abducted from their native land were no longer safe, and not able to question their captors. On the contrary, they would be questioned by all those who exercised authority over them. They would be wounded and maimed.  Many did not survive the horrific conditions onboard these ships. The ones that did were forever changed by their experiences.

They would have to learn a new language and endure harsh climates and conditions of enslavement to survive. Those fortunate enough to have access to their children for any duration would have to prepare them physically and psychologically for such a time of separation.

The psychological impact on any culture or group having to adapt to unsafe environments and conditions is that they will quickly learn to interpret any and every encounter with suspicion. Over time, the adult mind will be unable to differentiate people and or places that are safe from those that are not. The adult mind will begin to function solely to protect itself and the body it inhabits. While some may continue to show kindness toward those in similar circumstances, many will not.  Being subject to sale and transport at a moment’s notice prevented them from developing strong emotional bonds.  I was struck by how white ship captains, and their crews were able to force other Africans to inflict harm on their own people. They were forced to do so.  But over time, I imagine many of these enslaved people who were forced to turn on their kinsmen were given limited autonomy in return for their loyalty. And these African oppressors were simply able to eat and live to see another day.

The memory of home would dissipate more quickly for those entering adulthood.  Like smoke from a woodfire and the heat from dying embers, young captives would not experience the dissociation felt by men and women who were much older.  For their (older captives), loss of home would be more painful and inextricably bound to their identity and way of life.

In the second narrative by Luke Dixon, we are told that the mother and daughter who were separated after their transatlantic voyage and sold at auction were eventually reunited.  This was a rare occurrence but one that many enslaved relatives held onto.  The hope of seeing their loved ones again was a small flame that would not easily be extinguished.

The casualties of enslaved peoples would be felt not only by them but also by those left behind.  Those who remained in Africa.  Those left behind were the old and the very young.  Children whose parents were captured would inevitably become orphans, and their welfare became the responsibility of the adult community.

Most persons who live in a heightened state of insecurity usually develop anxiety and depression. These symptoms may lead further to post-traumatic stress that results in suicidal or homicidal tendencies. People who live in this perpetual state of depression or anxiety cannot fully exercise their roles and responsibilities within any sense of normalcy. Children raised in environments where there are no physical ties to home or property or where familial bonds are weak and non-existent go on to experience physical health problems as well. Cardiac, dermatological, and gastrointestinal issues are common among persons who are forced exiles.

According to Resmaa Menakem in his book My Grandmother's Hands, unhealed trauma can become part of someone’s personality. “As it is passed on and compounded through our bodies, it often becomes the family norm.  If it gets transmitted and compounded through multiple families and generations, it can turn into a culture”.  (Menakem, 2017,  p. 54)

Generational trauma involves understanding that every emotion we process is a burden our ancestors could not address. By learning to identify, feel, and release these burdens, we learn to break the cycle so that future generations who follow won’t have to endure the same pain.

Clinicians working with individuals who have experienced the trauma of forced migration and those unable to re-patriate or re-connect with their homeland (including their biological family) must ask themselves: What cultural resources will be supportive of their being able to cope and mitigate the damage caused by forced migration. The literature suggests that homes are strengthened and established through first generations of communities and churches.  

Persons who have experienced forced migration react and adapt to their new homeland differently.  The Descendants of Africa and the Americas  (Latin, Central, and South) must examine what has been lost historically. The homes and communities they inhabit are very different from those of their ancestors. 

Therapists and community workers who understand the importance of preserving one’s culture will engage in practices that promote healing and counteract trauma associated with violence and acquisition. The mental health community must work to secure safe places where education and emotional connections can flourish without fear. We must work to secure for them what we have obtained for ourselves—a place called home. 

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References:

Accounts of Slave Capture in Africa, Freedom, African American Identity: Vol. I, 1500-1865, Primary Resources in U.S. History and Literature, Toolbox Library, National Humanities Center. (n.d.). https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai/freedom/text6/text6read.htm

 Menakem, R. (2017) My Grandmother’s Hands: Racialized Trauma and the Pathway to Mending Our Hearts and Bodies.

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

Photo by Mehmet Turgut Kirkgoz

By Sterling M. Hawkins, LCSW-C, LICSW

D I S P O S S E S S I O N

"Struggle is a never-ending process. Freedom is never really won,
you earn it and win it in every generation."— Coretta Scott King

Colonial extinction and dispossession have occurred over the past 500 years. Dispossession involves a state where something you have is taken away from you, particularly your home or land, in most cases for the sole purpose of profit. Extraction and exploitation are materially connected. Colonization is a form of unequal exchange and involves those whose inhabitants are controlled by a more powerful country or group that is often far away. Conquest and European colonization between the 15th and 17th centuries brought disease to livestock and to enslaved peoples. When Europeans could not force enough indigenous labor to make colonization profitable they turned to the importation and enslavement of Africans that were violently extracted to supplement other indentured labor. Mass deaths in the 1500s occurred more than at any other time in American history because of disease. Eighty percent of Africans lost their lives resulting from smallpox, tuberculosis, yellow fever, and malaria. While not originally intended, pursuing profit through gold, silver, tobacco, and sugar resulted in genocide. At the very least enslaved Native Americans and Africans were expendable resources whenever their labor failed to generate a profit.

Terra nullus is a Latin term that means— “the land of no one” and refers to a land not under the sovereignty or control of any other state or socially or politically organized grouping. It was based on the Doctrine of Discovery which European explorers used to invade the sovereignty of Indigenous nations confiscate them as vacant and deem these lands and their inhabitants for their country. European explorers from— Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Netherlands ventured out in search of conquest and capital from 1492 - 1800. Their desire was for adventure, wealth, gold, silver, land, and commercial crops to increase political power. The use of native indigenous peoples pre-date African slavery. The Spanish invaded the Inca dynasties to mine precious metals from modern-day Columbia. Colonists turned to the continent of Africa to extract Africans in 1619 because indigenous tribal lands were soon exhausted and crops such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco were used to supplement and replace gold and silver to meet the demand for European monarchs at home.

Why Slavery? Indentured servants required payment or other forms of protection that would decrease profits. Originally, the first Africans arrived in the American colonies in 1619. However, slaves from Africa had already arrived in the Caribbean and Latin America in the 1500s, including North, South, and Central America.

Since the purpose of establishing colonies was to make money for royal families, wealthy colonists were set on decreasing the costs associated with producing cash crops. The easy method available was slavery. The quickest way to increase wealth using Indigenous tribes proved difficult because of their vast knowledge of the terrain. Extraction of Africans made it less likely for escape and revolts, allowing colonists to exercise greater control over them. Besides colonists needed to learn the skills of Native peoples to survive. West Africa bordered Europe and American seaports, making slavery— the capture, exchange, and sale of human property more accessible (Project, n.d.).

Terra nullus served as the prologue for intergenerational trauma. Dispossession occurs when any Indigenous people group (Africans and Native peoples) are removed forcibly from their land with subsequent occupation by their oppressor. Or, cession by treaty, whereby the previous government (Chiefs, Clans, Tribes, Councils, and Confederacies) yields power.

African American History, along with Native American history, shares similar stories. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade and The Iconic Trail of Tears that relocated thousands of Native peoples to Oklahoma were an epic tragedy that uprooted Indigenous peoples from their lands. In 1838, the Georgia militia dispossessed the Cherokee from their homeland at gunpoint. Forced to leave most of their belongings behind, they witnessed white Georgians taking ownership of their cabins, looting, and burning prized possessions. They were loaded into stockades and held captive until the militia set out on multiple routes to cross Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas at 10 miles a day with meager rations.

“In addition to bearing the physical and emotional hardship of the trip, enslaved Blacks were enlisted to labor for the Cherokees along the way; they hunted, chopped wood, nursed the sick, washed clothes, prepared the meals, guarded the camps at night, and hiked ahead to remove obstructions from the roads.” (Miles 2012)

Sadly, the Black presence on the Trail of Tears is dismissed by both Blacks and Natives alike. Some Native tribes (Cherokee, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Seminoles) were complicit in denying their role in slave ownership. Some Cherokees insisted that the tragedy rightfully should be theirs alone and not shared with Blacks, A few chose to exclude Blacks (many of whom had Native “blood) from a claim on this history and deny Black descendants from the circle of tribal belonging. (Miles 2012)

Likewise, some African Americans wished to avoid confronting the painful memory of Native peoples’ slave ownership, preferring instead to fondly imagine any Indian ancestor in the family tree and to picture all Native American communities in the South as safe havens for runaway slaves. (Miles 2012)

African American history and Native peoples have intertwined histories involving dispossession. Both experienced the brutal effects of colonization and exploitation by European settlers.

The Trail of Tears (1831-1850) marked the beginning of the forced relocation of Native peoples onto land parceled out by the US Government. During this time, Blacks remained enslaved by the Native tribes or by white settlers until the end of the Civil War ( 1861-1865) and the abolishment of slavery. After the Civil War, some Blacks received land allotments and limited tribal entitlements, depending on the laws of the individual tribes.

The intersectionality of race, gender, and class is critical to understanding the systemic nature of intergenerational trauma among marginalized societies and communities that have experienced dispossession. The effects of dispossession and enslavement have produced impoverishment, degradation, racism, sexism, and physical and mental health issues that never completely resolve but are suppressed, internalized, repackaged, and repeated and passed on to successive generations in ways that are often unclear to those who experience the symptoms.

The late author, feminist, and Civil Rights activist Bell Hooks, when addressing cultural oppression, writes— “I want there to be a place in the world where people can engage in one another’s differences in a way that is redemptive, full of hope and possibility. Not this— In order to love you, I must make you something else. That’s what domination is all about, that in order to be close to you, I must possess you, remake and recaste you.” (“Reel to Real Quotes by Bell Hooks,” n.d.)

I believe Hooks is correct. Unless there is redemptive engagement, there is no path forward and no reconciliation. The question white communities must ask themselves is— what are the most effective strategies for eliminating discriminatory practices that keep Blacks and other marginalized groups from experiencing dispossession and becoming re-traumatized? Likewise, Black communities must ask— what practices will preserve our cultural heritage, and promote freedom and equality that will aid our psychological healing and improved mental health?

“Contrary to what we may have been taught to think, unnecessary and unchosen suffering wounds us but need not scar us for life. It does mark us. What we allow the mark of our suffering to become is in our own hands.” (“Bell Hooks Quotes  (Author of All About Love),” n.d.)

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References:

Project, Connected Sociologies Curriculum. n.d. “Connected Sociologies - Colonial Dispossession and Extraction.” https://thesociologicalreview.org/projects/connected-sociologies/curriculum/mmw/colonial-extraction-and-dispossession/.

“https://www.cnn.com/2012/02/25/us/pain-of-trail-of-tears-shared-by-blacks-as-well-as-native-americans/index.html.” n.d. Https://Www.Cnn.Com/2012/02/25/Us/Pain-of-Trail-of-Tears-Shared-by-Blacks-as-Well-as-Native-Americans/Index.Html.

“Reel to Real Quotes by Bell Hooks.” n.d. https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/668261-reel-to-real-race-sex-and-class-at-the-movies.

“Reel to Real Quotes by Bell Hooks.” n.d. https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/668261-reel-to-real-race-sex-and-class-at-the-movies.“Bell Hooks Quotes  (Author of All About Love).” n.d. https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/10697.bell_hooks.

Retracing Our Paths - Remembering Our Origins

Photo by Marina Leonova

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

The following Essays were inspired by author Nikole Hannah-Jones and her book titled The 1619 Project. The 1619 Project published in 2021 (Random House, LLC, NY) is a collection of essays edited by Prof. Jones in collaboration with the New York Times. The book asserts that American history began in 1619 with the arrival of the White Lion, the first ship of enslaved Africans one year before the Mayflower arrived. The book argues that American democracy and wealth of the nation were largely built by enslaved Black Americans. But that this demographic in many ways is excluded from American history and remains suppressed due to racist institutions that persist from slavery.

These essays will attempt to go deeper into the fabric of certain principles of entitlement embodied in the Declaration of Independence that were denied people of color and the fallout from this failure in several key themes: Dispossession, Home, Subsistence, Profit, and Belief

What Do These Essays Have To Do With Mental Health?

Each essay will explore the concept of Intergenerational Trauma and recount deeply distressing and disturbing experiences documented throughout our history. While some may say that these experiences are now past they fail to see the present vestiges each has rooted in ancestral burdens that we who now live continue to carry. By identifying these burdens, we can begin the dialog and heal. The following Five Topic areas and their definitions will be used to explore Intergenerational Trauma in what otherwise may be mistaken as unrelated outcomes or occurrences of factors removed from the enslavement.

D I S P O S S E S S I O N

Persons who are forcibly displaced from their homeland are exposed to various stressors that impact their mental health and physical well-being before their migration and after their settlement and reintegration.

H O M E

The place where we reside or spend the majority of our time. It is a physical and geographical space. It’s also the tangible feeling you get from location, a sense of peace and joy from an environment, from loved ones where everyone knows they are welcome. The true meaning of home is diverse. However, what remains the same for everyone is that we desire to experience comfort and safety for it to be called such.

S U B S I S T E N C E

The action or fact of maintaining or supporting oneself at a minimum level requires that individuals be given the least amount of resources and materials possible, just enough to ensure their survival. Historically, people of color have been denied the resources and materials to live without the threat of poverty, disease, and death.

P R O F I T

The ability to obtain a financial advantage or benefit from labor or investment. For many people of color profit was denied or elusive at best. The effects of slavery and other forms of injustice have resulted in extreme income inequities designed to limit and remove the potential to make a better life for oneself.

B E L I E F

For many, religious and spiritual practices are key to understanding, recovering, and healing from trauma. Some faith traditions of Indigenous groups resemble only what could be classified as a preservative factor to insulate them and their communities from division and give meaning to life by offering solutions and reducing social isolation while providing a sense of identity, collective confidence, and transcendent hope amidst oppressive and inhumane conditions.

* * * * *

I N T E R G E N E R A T I O N A L T R A U M A

What Is Intergenerational Trauma?

Intergenerational Trauma is a theory that explains decades of generational conflict in households, families, and communities. It is transferred from a historical event with oppressive or traumatic repercussions to successive generations. People who suffer from Intergenerational Trauma may experience behavioral, and psychological symptoms related to the trauma that preceding generations have gone through, not limited to just parents or grandparents.

How was Intergenerational Trauma discovered?

Genetics is the study of genes—the units of a person’s genetic code, made from DNA. The term “epigenetics” originated with Conrad Waddington (1905–1975) a biologist and geneticist who coined the term “epigenetics” to define the branch of biology that studies the causal interactions between genes and the traits that they influence. Epigenetics focuses on physical changes that affect how genes are “expressed”. (Felsenfeld 2014)

Each person's DNA lays the groundwork for developing physical and psychological characteristics—providing complex instructions for creating proteins and other molecules. However, how these instructions are used can be modified by various factors.  These modifications occur naturally and help to steer development. For example, they enable cells in the brain in other parts of the body to perform specialized roles based on the same underlying genetic code. However, the epigenome is also susceptible to influence by exposure to toxins and other environmental factors.

Epigenetic changes may be caused by health-related factors such as diet, exercise, smoking, drug use, and early stress. For example, research suggests that prenatal exposure to famine may reduce the methylation of a gene associated with growth. Differences in DNA methylation have also been explored in individuals who have experienced other forms of early-life adversity, such as childhood trauma. Such epigenetic differences, if indeed caused by harsh early experiences, could potentially play a role in explaining increased vulnerability to physical and mental illness. (Psychology Today 2024)

On the simplest level, the concept of intergenerational trauma acknowledges that exposure to extremely adverse events impacts individuals to such a great extent that their offspring find themselves grappling with their parents’ post‐traumatic state. A more recent and provocative claim is that the experience of trauma – or more accurately the effect of that experience – is “passed” somehow from one generation to the next through non‐genomic, possibly epigenetic mechanisms affecting DNA function or gene transcription. (Yehuda -Lerner 2018)

The belief that the experience of parents and their ancestors influence future generations is well documented. History is taught, past down, and preserved through the witnesses and survivors of communal trauma, such as genocide and death. Cultural memory is conveyed through rituals, memorials, museums, the arts, and anniversaries. Intergenerational or Cultural trauma occurs “when members of a collectivity feel they have been subjected to a horrendous event that leaves indelible marks upon their group consciousness, marking their memories forever and changing their future identity in fundamental and irrevocable ways.” (Lehrner and Yehuda, 2018 as cited in Alexander, 2004)

In the case of the Holocaust, (1933- 1945) many members of the targeted community felt it was vital to demonstrate that the Nazis had failed in their agenda to destroy the Jewish community and that living well was the best revenge. After all, Jews had a long history of surviving oppression, and the Holocaust provided another instance not only of their victimization but also of their resilience. (Lehrner and Yehuda 2018)

“The population of Holocaust survivors was relatively unique in that the entire religious group was targeted, regardless of sex, age, temperament, or other risk factors, and the Holocaust ended after the war and so could be chronologically bounded. Despite the dispersion of survivors, they tended to settle in Jewish communities in the United States and Israel and could thus be identified and recruited for study. Furthermore, the second generation was composed of adults who were interested in research questions about intergenerational transmission of trauma effects and of age to consent and participate in such research. A research literature followed, chasing questions of whether and how a trauma not directly experienced may have had intergenerational influences, affecting the development of second and even third generations of offspring.” (Lerner and Yehuda 2018)

Another evidence of intergenerational trauma occurred when tens of thousands of people on September 11th, 2001 were directly exposed to the World Trade Center attack. There were documented approximately 1,700 pregnant women. Some of these women as a result of their exposure developed PTSD, involving trouble sleeping, nightmares, becoming easily startled or frightened, irritability, and aggression. Some of the children of these pregnant women exhibit symptoms that their mothers experienced on that day. 38 of these women who were at or near the World Trade Center at the time participated in a research study where saliva samples were taken and measured for the stress hormone cortisol. Researchers found that those women who had developed PTSD following exposure to the attacks had significantly lower levels of cortisol in their saliva than those who were similarly exposed but did not develop PTSD. About a year later, the researchers measured cortisol levels in the children and found that those born to women who had developed PTSD had lower levels of the hormone than the others. It was also observed that reduced cortisol levels were most apparent in those children whose mothers were in the third trimester of pregnancy when they were exposed to the attack. (Costandi 2018)

It is believed that “Adverse experiences may influence the next generation through multiple pathways. The most apparent route runs through parental behavior, but influences during gestation and even changes in eggs and sperm may also play a role. And all these channels seem to involve epigenetics: alterations in the way that genes function. Epigenetics potentially explains why the effects of trauma may endure long after the immediate threat is gone, and it is also implicated in the diverse pathways by which trauma is transmitted to future generations.” (Yehuda 2022)

Why is the topic of Intergenerational Trauma important?

Depression among people of color (African American, Latinx, and Indigenous groups) who have experienced discrimination are more likely to suffer from depression. Their symptoms occur with greater frequency, duration, and severity when compared with White Americans. Moreover, African Americans are less likely to receive mental health treatment than their White counterparts. These inequities are often linked to social, economic, and environmental determinants such as low income, under-resourced educational opportunities, inadequate housing, and insufficient access to quality mental health treatment. (Am Journal of Psychiatry 2022)

Identifying and understanding these risk factors particularly their impact on successive generations requires accounting for structural racism that is routinely experienced by racially and ethnically minoritized individuals.

Cumulative trauma is a term that is used to explain syndromes that result from repeated injury or are aggravated by repetitive insults. Traumatic experiences stemming directly from structural racism represent the failure of a trusted entity (institutions, society, or the government) to protect one from harm. (Am Journal of Psychiatry 2022)

Traumatic experiences can take many forms. Intergenerational trauma which stems from historical trauma by oppression related to culture, race, or ethnicity transcends multiple generations. Not only for survivors but also for descendants not yet born. Researchers now recognize that circumstances that can lead to intergenerational trauma include multiple causes that have their origin in:

• colonization

• enslavement, systemic racism, discrimination

• loss of language, culture, and traditions,

• separation of children from family members

• war

• famine and natural disasters

• global or national crisis, like the Great Depression or the Covid-19 Pandemic

• genocide

• long-term financial hardship or poverty

  (Raypole 2022)

The physical and psychological effects of one or more of these causes will directly impact what persons believe about themselves, others, and their social environment. The effects of intergenerational trauma can be lifelong and require that those who are experiencing symptoms linked to intergenerational trauma, develop coping skills and sources of support to begin to heal. It also requires that mental health providers who treat clients who suffer from mental illness become trauma-informed and knowledgeable about sources of trauma and the diverse influence it has on both the individual and collective experiences of marginalized groups.

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References:

Alexander, Jeffrey C.. "Chapter 1. Toward a Theory of Cultural Trauma". Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, pp. 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520936768-002

Costandi, Mo. 2018. “Pregnant 9/11 Survivors Transmitted Trauma to Their Children.” The Guardian, February 14, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2011/sep/09/pregnant-911-survivors-transmitted-trauma.

Fesenfeld, G. (2014)  A Brief History of Epigenetics. Cold Spring Harbor Biol. v.6, PubMed Central. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3941222/

Hankerson, Sidney H., Nathalie Moise, Diane Wilson, Bernadine Y. Waller, Kimberly T. Arnold, Cristiane Duarte, Claudia Lugo-Candelas, et al. 2022. “The Intergenerational Impact of Structural Racism and Cumulative Trauma on Depression.” ˜the œAmerican Journal of Psychiatry 179 (6): 434–40. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.21101000.

Psychology Today (2024) Epigenetics https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/epigenetics

Raypole, Crystal. 2022. “Understanding Intergenerational Trauma and Its Effects.” Healthline. April 20, 2022. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/intergenerational-trauma#impact.

Yehuda, Rachel, and Amy Lehrner. 2018. “Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma Effects: Putative Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms.” World Psychiatry/World Psychiatry 17 (3): 243–57. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20568.

Yehuda, Rachel. 2024. “How Parents’ Trauma Leaves Biological Traces in Children.” Scientific American, February 20, 2024. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-parents-rsquo-trauma-leaves-biological-traces-in-children/

—. 2022f. “The Intergenerational Impact of Structural Racism and Cumulative Trauma on Depression.” ˜the œAmerican Journal of Psychiatry 179 (6): 434–40. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.21101000.

Division and Diversity

Photo by Brett Achurch

“When there is no enemy within, the enemy outside cannot hurt you.” —Winston S. Churchill

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

“Mending Wall” is the first poem in a collection of poems titled North of Boston by Robert Frost. The poem has forty-five lines and is not divided into stanzas. There are no rhymes. This poem, like others by Frost, portrays nature in the New England countryside and the people who live there. Frost uses nature to teach us about life. (Mending Wall, 2024)

The poem contrasts two types of persons, represented by the narrator (the primary character) and the neighbor (a secondary character), who highlights the disengenuous tone of the narrator. The narrator is evasive, deceitful, and negative, whereas the neighbor is honest, succinct, and positive. The only statement we hear from the neighbor is, “Good fences make good neighbors.” This contrasts sharply with the narrator’s line— “Something there is that doesn’t love a wall.”

There’s a conversational tone between the narrator and the neighbor. Both men have different ideas about what makes a person a good neighbor. The conversation between the two men spans years. The narrator seeks to convince the neighbor of the wall’s futility and cites several reasons that a wall is not necessary. The narrator suggests that neither of the men keep livestock. And, that the forces of nature- “the frozen ground” and the forces of men, “the work of the hunters” erode all efforts to achieve permanence.

Underlying Frost’s account of the two men’s differing outlook on their shared fence is a question: Are boundaries necessary to maintain relationships between people? Although the narrator believes borders are not needed, the adage repeated by the neighbor— “Good fences make good neighbors,” ironically is observed in the relationship between them. In this poem the wall represents the differences between people and property.

As I travel the countryside of Ireland I observe many stone walls that divide property and pasturelands. Some are centuries old and have been damaged by the forces of nature and the forces of men. Others were built more recently or have been repaired. I listen to our tour guide describe Ireland’s history of division and diversity, and like in the poem reflect on how division and diversity helped to create tolerance and respect for differences. World leaders often refer to this mending as international diplomacy that encourages negotiation, dialog, cooperation and shaping peaceful resolutions. Such efforts influence the citizenry, It influences us, who we are and who we will become.

Relationships require us to be genuine, to acknowledge everything that we witness, even when it becomes uncomfortable to do so. And, even where differences and disagreements remain. As writer Margaret Renkl beautifully illustrates in her own reflection on Mending Wall. She writes— “Truth sometimes dawns too late. Time shifts more than stones. Tumbled down walls can’t always be mended.”

As I examine my own relationships I have reached a similar conclusion. I am learning to view my relationships through a wide-angled lens. Accepting like the neighbor that there are walls that should remain undisturbed, but not misunderstood. These boundaries serve to define who I am and what I believe, and distinguish me from my neighbors and what they believe. And that a world with fences makes good neighbors by minimizing conflicts and misunderstandings, creating a sense of mutual respect and allowing my neighbors and I to coexist peacefully.

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References:

Mending wall. (2024, June 22). The Poetry Foundation. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44266/mending-wall

Renkl, M. (2023, June 4). https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/02/opinion/robert-frost-neighbors-fences.html. New York Times.

R E V I S E D

Photo by Ekaterina Astakhova

“Education is the kindling of a flame not the filling of a vessel.” —Socrates

By Sterling M. Hawkins, MSW, LCSW-C, LICSW

The goal of education is to help people develop their potential, learn to think critically and contribute to society. Several months ago, I was forced to re-examine the role that education has played in my life. I asked myself if I had achieved these goals, and my answer was “Yes.”

Personally I believe that I had. In fact, others were able to reaffirm my observations without bias. The avenues that allowed me to pursue a formal education as a young adult are different now that I am old. I would learn this in an attempt to climb the final rungs on the academic ladder in the pursuit of a doctoral (EdD) degree. The lessons were swift and steep. I learned several things post-enrollment through experience that my academic advisor never prepared me for. I learned that academic success can exact a greater price in old age than when one is young. And that some of the costs associated with learning undermine learning itself.

For example, I learned that I had given up a lot already, having entered retirement, by returning to the virtual classroom. I had given up a modest client caseload, time with my wife, and finances that would have gone toward things more tangibly gratifying with immediate utility or return on my investment. I had shelved a couple of hobbies with the hope that if my program progressed satisfactorily, I could resume where I left off. And that the education I had gained (had I continued in the program) would make up for any losses.

I learned that the program, as it is structured, would fail to teach me what is most important in this season of life. This objective was not a part of my course curriculum. What began as a three-year graduation window soon became five once I was made aware of the volume of work that would be required of me. I managed satisfactorily in the beginning but quickly became overwhelmed with the pace of the condensed schedule to complete two courses simultaneously per eight-week term. One would be challenging but doable. Two proved destructive and unsustainable. Choosing to drop one class and continue with the other would have extended my time and my costs. Outcomes for which I was unprepared. Given this difficult choice, I elected to withdraw from the program. I rationalized that my love for education would not be rewarded under such conditions as in the past.

I learned that for education to hold value for me in old age, it would need to have the potential to improve the lives of others, including my own. The short-term sacrifice for long-term reward is no longer logical and needs to be revised. To voluntarily make sacrifices only to encounter other unforeseen losses that may be irreparable seems pointless. The short-term sacrifice (5 years ) in my mid-sixties compared to similar sacrifices in my mid-twenties became long. And the rewards at seventy would be short. Therefore, I made the difficult decision to revise my goals while expanding my definition of what life-long education has now become.

You have heard it said that there are two types of education—formal and informal. For most of my life, I valued traditional (formal) classroom education (including virtual learning) over informal, less structured experiential education. While quick to acknowledge the valuable role informal education can play in life, I’ve undervalued it in my own life.

Author and commentator David Brooks has a name for informal education. He refers to it as The Other Education. He writes— “We don’t usually think of this second education. For reasons having to do with the peculiarities of our civilization, we pay a great deal of attention to our scholastic educations, which are formal and supervised, and we devote much less public thought to our emotional educations, which are unsupervised and haphazard. This is odd since our emotional educations are much more important to our long-term happiness and the quality of our lives.” (Brooks, 2009)

I believe my emotional education is also more important to the long-term happiness of others who walk alongside, behind, or in front of me. As a therapist, I know this, but I couldn’t see it in myself. I have only become aware of it retrospectively. In the words of George Whitman (1913-2011) , All the world is my school and all humanity is my teacher.” My takeaway from this experience is that education is not intelligence but is about helping, supporting, and giving guidance wherever it is welcomed. So that others can benefit whenever it is useful. Wisdom is shown not only in what we study but how we live. Wisdom is about the whole of life and not just what we know but how we apply our knowledge. In the words of Socrates, how we “kindle the flame.”

I am already engaged in such education and now feel empowered to do more. The clarity of my experience is liberating and has opened up possibilities to think, feel, and act more in tune with my core values and to experience richer and deeper relationships with those I educate and those who educate me.

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References:

The Other Education. (2009, November 26). New York Times.